AP Inter 1st Year Civics Model Paper Set 7 with Solutions

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AP Inter 1st Year Civics Model Paper Set 7 with Solutions

Time: 3 Hours
Maximum Marks: 100

Section – A (3 × 10 = 30)

Note :

• Answer any three of the following questions is not exceeding 40 lines each.
• Each question carries 10 marks.

Question 1.
Explain the relationship and difference between state and society.
Answer:
introduction : State and society are two important human organizations. Madver described that blood relationship (kinship) created society and society in turn led to the state.

State : State is a people organized for law within a definite territory.

Society : Society is a group of men brought together by a system of common ideas, interests and aspirations.

Relationship between State and Society : The relationship between state and society can be discussed as follows.

• Common features : State and society have some common features. The two sometimes include practically. The same persons most cases, a vast majority of the members of a society may be included in the same state.
• Complementary : State and society go hand in hand. They help each other. Social progress depends upon the progress of the state. The working of the state is influenced by social customs and traditions.
• Synonymous : State and society were considered as the same in the past. In the beginning the Greek Philosophers and later the Idealists viewed the city states and society as synonymous.
• Inter related : State regulates the external conduct of individuals in society through laws. It provides a broad frame work of social order. Society nourishes the state with economic, cultural, religious and humanitarian activities. Thus state and society cannot be completely separated as different entities.

Differences between State and Society: Inspite of close relationship, state and society differ from one another. This may be informed through the following table.

State	Society
1. State is a political organization.	1. Society is a social organization.
2. State regulates only the external relation of men in society.	2. Society controls both internal and external activities of men in society.
3. State possess the power of compulsion. Disobedience to its laws leads to punishment.	3. Society does not possess the power of compulsion. Disobedience to its principles does not leads to any physical punishment.
4. State derives its strength mainly from laws.	4. Society derives its strength from customs, conventions and traditions.
5. State has definite territory.	5. Society has no definite territory.
6. State has the sovereignty.	6. Society has no sovereignty.
7. Membership of the state is compulsory.	7. Membership of the society is voluntary.
8. State is permanent.	8. Society is not permanent.
9. Laws of the state are uniform.	9. Rules of society are not uniform.
10. State came into existence after the origin of society.	10. Society is much older institution than the state.

Question 2.
Define the term equality. Write about social and economic equalities.
Answer:
Meaning and explanation of equality : The concept of equality is of great significance in the study of political science. The term ‘Equality1 became an important slogan and inspired the people of France, America, Russia and India during their struggle for freedom and independence. The term “Equality” implies absolute equality of treatment.

Definitions :

1. “Equality means first of all the absence of special privilege. In the second place “It means that adequate opportunities are laid open to all”. – H.J. Laski
2. “Equality implies equal rights for all the people and abolition of special rights and privileges”. – Barker

Types of equality : There are many types of equality. They may be analysed in the following.
1. Social equality: Social equality stands for equality of status and absence of class distinctions and discrimination. It exists when no individual is made to suffer on account of his caste, class, colour, creed, race etc. For instance, the constitution of India does not reconize caste or class distinctions. In fact it has opposed the practice of untouchability. When all citizens enjoy social equality, there will be no discrimination against anyone on the grounds of caste, class, colour, creed, race and place of birth and legal rights. Social equality cannot be achieved only through laws. There must prevail a sentiment of equality among individuals. The following elements help in achieving and maintaining social equality.

1. Special privileges should not be allowed by the state to any citizen.
2. The government shall adopt and implement a uniform policy in the fields of education, employment, administration and legislation.
3. People must have a broad outlook with the qualities of tolerance, sacrifice, honesty etc., in social and religious affairs.
4. Citizens of a state should maintain harmonious relations with their fellow citizens.
5. People should not use their name of the caste, sect or religion at the time of forwarding petitions.
6. Inter caste marriages should be encouraged.

2. Economic equality : This kind of equality is a precondition for the enjoyment of social and political equalities. Its absence leads to several social and political problems. Economic equality does not mean equal distribution of social wealth among all the people. It only means the elimination of inequalities in wealth, income and property. The basic needs like food, shelter and clothing must be available to all. In the opinion of Laski, “Economic equality means the abolition of unfettered and irresponsible will in the industrial world”. In Barkers view, “Economic equality is partly a matter of status and partly a matter of property and income”.

Question 3.
What is meant by Justice ? How is it developed ?
Answer:
Meaning : The word “Justice is derived from a Latin word “JUS” which means “ to bind”.

It refers to the formulation and implementation of rules and regulations endorsed by the constitution and the judicial organisations.

Development of Justice : In ancient India, Justice, being associated with dharma as enunciated in Hindu scriptures, was considered to be the duty of the king. The king used to maintain a just social order based on dharma. It was the primary duty of the king to maintain justice by punishing the wrong doers and rewarding the virtuous persons.

Justice normally means giving each person his due. However, its understanding differs from person to a person. Justice is viewed from the human aspect of every individual. Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, stated that human beings possess dignity. When all persons ‘are endowed with dignity, they will be entitled to adequate opportunities for developing their talents and for pursuing their goals. Thus, Justice demands that each individual should be given equal consideration.

In Medieval age St. Augustine derived the concept of Justice from Plato. He emphasized on the proper relations between individuals for the harmonious working of society. Thomas Aquinas was considered as the first political philosopher who separated Justice from religion. By 16^th century, the concept of justice got completely secularized. The social contractualist like Hobbes identified Justice with the orders of the sovereign. His successors John Locke, Rousseau, Emmanuel Kant and others regarded Justice as a synthesis of liberty and equality. The advocates of natural law developed the idea of individual justice. The socialists conceived justice from economic point of view. While the conventionalists explained the concept of justice from individual perspective, the modernists viewed it from social perspective.

There is no single precise definition to the concept of justice. It was defined and discussed by various writers in different ways basing on the place, time context, culture etc. It is considered as the sum total of the principles and beliefs advanced for the survival of the society. These principles and beliefs in turn led to the making of rights, freedoms and laws.

Question 4.
How many types of citizenship are there ? Elucidate.
Answer:
There are three types of citizenship.
They are :
(i) Single citizenship
(ii) Dual citizenship and
(iii) Global or Universal citizenship.

i) Single citizenship : Single citizenship implies possession of one type of citizenship, identical rights, privileges and immunities by the citizens. Citizens enjoy this type of citizenship without any discrimination. It is prevalent in many states in the modern period. For instance the constitution of India provided for single citizenship to every Indian citizen irrespective of his place of birth, residence etc.

ii) Dual citizenship : Dual citizenship means possession of two citizenships in two States. It is in vogue in some developed and developing countries. For instance, children born to American citizens in other states acquire natural citizenship in both the states – one in their parent American State and another in the State where they are born. However, persons having dual citizenship are not entitled to the special privileges. They are subject to the laws of both countries. Dual citizenship applies to the children until they attain adulthood. Later they have to choose citizenship of one of the two states.

iii) Global or Universal citizenship : Global or Universal Citizenship is the latest phenomena in the contemporary international and national politics. The dramatic events that took place after 1980s and 1990s created a great awareness among the people all over the world. The advancement in communications, science, technology and other spheres transformed human life in a miraculous way.

Question 5.
Explain about the merits and demerits of presidential government.
Answer:
Definition : Prof. Garner defined presidential government as “one in which the executive is constitutionally independent of legislature in respect of its duration of tenure and political policies”.

Merits of presidential government: The following merits are claimed for the presidential system over the parliamentary system.
1) Ensures stable government: This system ensures stability because the president is elected for a fixed term. His tenure is not dependent on the support of the legislature. Hence he can continue in his office till end of his term. This ensures the stability of the government.

2) Efficiency in administration : Under this system, the president rules with the help of the secretaries and advisers who are experienced and efficient. They are appointed on the basis of their ability and efficiency but not on political considerations. They do not belong to any political party. They do not bother about the problems of their constituencies. They devote their time to administration. This promotes efficiency in administration.

3) Suitable for emergencies : This system is more suitable for emergencies. Since all powers are in the hands of the president, he can take any action and face any situation. He need not seek the approval of the legislature and the advice of his secretaries. He administers the country keeping in view the welfare of the people.

4) Suitable for diverse interests : This system is best suited for countries which are inhabited by different communities with diverse interests. The president can meet the needs of diverse group of people by taking suitable decisions.

5) Consistent policies : The president enjoys fixed term of office. He cannot be removed before the end of his term very easily. This enables him to follow continuous and consistent domestic and foreign policies.

Demerits of presidential government : The above merits are counter balanced by the following defects :
1. Scope for disputes : This system is based on the theory of separation of powers. Both the legislative and the executive organs are kept apart. This leads to frequent deadlocks and disputes between the two organs.

2. No flexibility : This system is very rigid. It is difficult to replace the President before the expiry of his term, eventhough he is weak, corrupt and inefficient.

3. Irresponsible and Autocratic : This system provides scope for the president to rule irresponsibly and autocratically. It is so because he is independent of the control of the legislature and not accountable to it for his actions. He ignores the criticism of the opposition. This makes him to misuse and abuse his powers.

4. Division of responsibility : This system leads to division of responsibility which affects the smooth working of government. When the relations between the legislature and the executive are not cordial, each may try to shift the responsibility on the other. This leads to inefficiency and division of responsibility in administration.

5. Public opinion is not reflected : This system does not promote political consciousness because there is no significance for the legislature. The president and his secretaries are not the members of the legislature. So, they do not participate in its debates and discussions. As a result, the discussions in the legislature become formal and dry. They do not have much significance and reflect public opinion.

Section – B (8 × 5 = 40)

Note :

• Answer any eight of the following questions is not exceeding 20 lines each.
• Each question carries 5 marks.

Question 6.
Mention any three topics covered under the scope of political science.
Answer:
i) Study of man in relation to the Society and State : Aristotle stated that “Man is a Social Animal”. Man can satisfy his basic needs like food, clothing, shelter and protection in the society. Political science explains the relationship beween man and society. It also explains the origin,evolution and purpose of the society. It examines how man should adjust himself with the society.

ii) Study of state : Aristotle also stated that man is a political animal. State is a human and political institution. It came into existence for the sake of man and continue in existence for providing happy and prosperous life for man. Individuals became members of the state since its inception. We can’t imagine the life of individuals outside of the state. Political Science studies the intimate relationship between the state and the citizens. It also studies the nature, functions and various theories of state authority.

It also comprises a study of the various activities of the state from that of ancient police state to the modern welfare state. Thus, Political Science deals with the present, past and future aspects of the state.

iii) Study of Associations and Institutions : Associations and Institutions help the Individuals for their moral, religious, cultural, scientific and technological progress. These carry on their activities at local, regional, national and international levels. Individuals join as members in these Associations out of their interests or purposes. There prevails a great linkage between these voluntary associations and Institutions. Associations and Institutions in modern times play a significant role in the formulation and Implementation of policies of the state and government. Voluntary bodies such as trade unions, peasant groups, professional bodies etc., will have a great impact on the state and government. Political science explains the nature, structure and functions of the various associations and Institutions.

Question 7.
Mention the difference between state and association.
Answer:
Introduction : The social nature of man finds expression in numerous groups and associations which satisfy his various needs in life. Man cannot live in isolation-. He seeks the cooperation and help of others to fulfill his needs and to develop his personality.

Differences between State and Association : State and association differ from one another in the following matters.

State	Association
1. State is a political organization.	1. Association is a social organization.
2. State has definite territory.	2. Association has no definite territory.
3. State has the sovereignty.	3. Association has no sovereignty.
4. Membership of the state is compulsory.	4. Membership of the association is not compulsory.
5. State is permanent.	5. Association is not permanent.
6. State is superior to the associations.	6. Associations are inferior to the state.
7. The scope of state is wide.	7. The scope of association is limited.
8. State can interfere in the affairs of the associations.	8. Associations can’t interfere in the affairs of the state.
9. Laws of the state are uniform.	9. Rules of association are not uniform.
10. State strives for the welfare and progress of all the peopie.	10. Associations are meant for realising the interests of the members only.

Question 8.
Is India a Nation State ? Explain.
Answer:
It is interesting to know whether India is a Nation-State. Some say that India is a uni-national state. As against this some state that it is a Multi-National State. It is argued that India is a Uni-National State rather than a Multi-National State due to the following reasons.

• It consists of people who possess the features of uni-national state like common history, common culture and traditions.
• The Indians showed their spirit of National integration on many occassions after independence.
• They stood as one and extended support to their government when our country was faced with wars from Pakistan and China in 1962 and 1965 respectively.
• They stood united under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi throughout the freedom struggle against the British rule in India.
• From the begining, our country won name and fame for its unity in diversity. Even- though the people of India belong to different regions, they are Indians first and Indians in the last resort i.e., they owe indebtedness to their respective religions and languages.
• Some common elements concerning national anthem, national heritage, culture, constitution, national flag and the government inspire the nationalist feelings and inculcate the national integration among the people.
• People celebrate all the national festivals with great enthusiasm and spirit.
  Hence we may say that India is a nation state with the characteristic features of unity in diversity.

Question 9.
Write about any three sources of Law.
Answer:
Definitions : The English word ‘Law originates from the ancient Teutonic word ‘Lag’ which means “something that lies fixed or uniform”. Political thinkers defined law in different ways which are listed below :

1. “Law is the command of the sovereign”. – John Austin
2. “Law is the system of rights and obligations which the State enforces”. – T.H. Green

Sources of Law :
1) Customs, Practices and Traditions : These are one of the important sources of law. In primitive societies, there were no laws in written form. All disputes were settled in accordance with social customs and traditions. Customs regulated the social life in the early societies. Customs and traditions cannot be laws in political sense. But, when the State recognises certain traditions, they in turn become laws. Ex : The laws relating to marriage, divorce etc., found in our Country are based on traditions, the common law of England.

2) Religion : In ancient times customary laws and religious laws were intermixed. The religious teachers enjoyed unlimited powers in those times. Their decisions were treated on par with laws. The primitive men believed that the judgements of the religious teachers had divine sanction. The ancient Roman laws were merely the religious laws. The Hindu and Muslim laws derived inspiration mainly from religion.

3) Judicial Decisions / Adjudication / Judgement of the Courts : The judgements of the judges also serve as a source of law. Generally, judges interpret laws, apply them to particular cases and deliver judgements. Their judgements become precedents and are usually followed by other judges in similar cases. In course of time such judgements acquire the status of law. In this way judges add to the law of the country. There are many instances that new laws have evolved by way of interpretation. Many of the laws in Britain, America and India have originated from the judgements of the Judges of the respective countries.

Question 10.
Point out two elements that threaten Individual’s liberties.
Answer:
Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality. Even though the liberty is safeguarded by several ways, there prevails some elements which threatens the Liberty of individuals in modern times.

They are as follows :
1. Enhancement of state authority : The modern democratic state, in the pretext of welfarism has assumed undefinable powers. As a result, it has been intruding into every activity of the people. Even its interference in family matters in the name of population correctives became common. So is the case in the sphere of economy, culture, arts, science etc. All this will lead to the encroachment of state into the public domain. This negated individual liberty to a great extent.

2. Too many laws: In modern times people felt the government should come to their rescue for providing various amenities. This prompted the government to encroach into the sphere of individuals. In the process, too many laws have become the order of the day. Extension of laws gradually led to the curtailment of individual liberties.

Question 11.
Write about political equality.
Answer:
Political equality is an important kind of equality. It means that all citizens will have equal access to the avenues of authority. All of them possess the same political rights, an equal voice in government and equal right to hold public offices. It may be noted that political equality is enjoyed by the citizens only. It is not given to aliens and foreign nationals living in a state. Citizens have to utilise the opportunities given by political equality with great case, farsighted outlook and broad-mindedness. Then only political equality brings the required fruits. Then only political equality brings the required fruits. Political equality prevails and flourishes when all citizens were provided with political rights like Right to vote. Right to contest elections, Right to make petitions and Right to criticism. That means political equality flourishes only in democratic countries.

Question 12.
Briefly describe about the global or universal citizenship.
Answer:
Global or Universal citizenship is the latest phenomena in the contemporary international and national politics. The dramatic events that took place after 1980s and 1990s created a great awareness among the people all over the world. The advancement in communications, science, technology and other spheres transformed human life in a miraculous way.

Liberalization : Privatization and globalization (LPG) have become a boon to them. The various governments in both the advanced and third world states have shifted their priorities ranging from defence to the welfare and well being of common men. As a result, intellectuals belonging to different walks of life have been given encouragement to go abroad and reap ample benefits.

It is in the above circumstances that large number of citizen have gone abroad for educational, commercial and research purposes. Thousands of them have either settled in foreign states or remained there on work permits. They have earned a lot of money. They remain instrumental in bringing their income to the native states. In the process they have been seeking citizenship in their native state and in the states where they are rendering services. Some states have contemplated the idea of conferring dual citizenship to their citizens in other states. Such an idea became a basis of global citizenship.

Question 13.
Explain any three merits and demerits of democracy.
Answer:
Merits : Democracy has the following merits.
a) Efficient government: Prof. Garner described democracy as an efficient and effective government. The government in democracy carries all its activities efficiently and effectively both in normal times and emergencies.

b) Upholds individual liberties : Democracy is the only government that upholds individual liberties. It guarantees certain civil rights to the people thereby providing an opportunity for them to become ideal and responsible citizens.

c) Assures equality: Democracy assures equality of individuals in political and economic spheres. The people living in democratic nation enjoy all the political. Civil and economic rights and privileges equally without any discrimination.

Demerits : Democracy has the following demerits.
a) Rule of Ignorance : Plato criticised democracy as a rule of ignorance. Aristotle called it a perverted form of government. Anybody can become a ruler in this system and no special qualifications are prescribed for voters or rulers.

b) Favourable to rich : The ruling political party in democracy depends on the rich people for their financial support at the time of elections. Therefore it becomes an obligation to the party in power to make laws which are favourable to the rich.

c) Quality is ignored : The votes in democracy are counted not weighted. Everything is decided according to majority opinion. The quality of majority cannot always be correct. Thus quantity is given greater importance than quality.

Question 14.
Explain any four merits of secularism.
Answer:
Merits of secularism : The following are some of the important merits of secularism.

1. Equality : Secularism forms as the basis of equalitarian society. It treats the people belonging to all religious denominations as equal. It gives no recognition to the man made inequalities and discriminations based on caste, colour, community, region, religion, language, race etc. People will have a strong favourable impression towards the nation.

2. Religious freedom : Secularism enables the individuals to enjoy their religious freedom to their full extent. The state will not interfere in the religious affairs of individuals. The constitution and various laws in a secular state will provide individuals with complete freedom to embrance, profess, practice and propagate any religion as they like.

3. Law and order : Now a days one can observe unhappy, miserable and pro-religious movements that are organized by different sections of government, state and other department. The maintenance of communal harmony became a challenging task for the state in pacifying the feelings the people belonging to various religious denominations. Secularism avoids communal clashes and religious bigotry and animosities in the society. This is due to the fact that secularism ultimately promotes religious harmony among the people.

4. Rule of law: Secularism accords recognition to the concept of Rule of Law. A state following secularism will enact laws and implements them keeping in view the interest of not a particular religious denomination, the people belonging to all religious denomination. It will not take into account the religious dogmas while making laws. Similarly it makes no discrimination between the people on the ground of religion.

Question 15.
Explain the merits and demerits of a rigid constitution.
Answer:
Rigid constitution : Rigid constitution is one whose provisions cannot be changed easily. In this system the constitutional amendment methods are different from those of ordinary laws. There will be a special procedure for amending the provisions of the rigid constitution. The rigid constitution will have firmness due to its special procedures of amendment. The Constitution of the United States is the best example of a rigid constitution.

Merits :

1. Rigid constitution secures political stability.
2. It is a product of political experience.
3. It avoids hasty and ill-considered legislation.
4. It protects the fundamental rights of the citizens.
5. It preserves and enhances the interests of the provinces in a federal state.
6. It is suitable for all kinds of people.

Demerits :

1. Rigid constitution cannot be easily amended to suit the changing needs.
2. It may affect the nation’s progress and growth.
3. It is not suitable for tackling the issues arising during emergencies.

Question 16.
Write about the modern classification of governments.
Answer:
Modern political philosphers like Stephen Leacock made many attempts to classify the political systems.

Leacock classified modern governments into despotic and democratic on the basis of nature and exercise of powers.

He further classified governments into unitary and federal on the basis of allocation and distribution of governmental authority. Again he grouped governments under parliamentary and presidential basing on the nature of relationship between the legislative and executive organs.

Despotic government : In a despotic government, the executive is superior to the legislature. A single person assumes and exercises all powers of government. So, we observe concentration of sovereign authority in this system. The despot rules state at his will and pleasure without bothering about public opinion.

Democratic Government : Democratic government has long historical origin since the ancient Greek period. The rulers in democratic government are elected directly or indirectly by the adult citizens. In this system the adult citizens possess franchise irrespective of caste, colour, creed, community etc. They will decide the future of the rulers through elections at periodical intervals. The government in democracy will have the support of majority sections of the population.
Leacock subdivided democracies into Limited Monarchies and Republics.

Limited monarchy : Limited monarchy is one in which the monarch or king acts as a constitutional head. He exercises his powers only in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet. Britain is the best example of the system.

Republican government : Under republican system, the executive head of the government is elected for a fixed term of office. Ex : The president of India. There will be a special body i.e., electoral college comprising the elected members of the two houses of Parliament and those of state legislative assemblies in India. It elects the president and the vice president respectively.

Question 17.
Explain classification of rights.
Answer:
Rights are classified into three kinds, Those are
i) Natural rights
ii) Moral rights
iii) Legal rights.

i) Natural rights : Natural rights are the rights which are enjoyed by men by birth. People enjoyed these rights even before the origin of civilized society. The society and the state recognised are respected these rights. John Loek, who profounded the theory of natural rights, claimed that these rights are pre-social and pre-political in nature. Ex : Right to life and Right to property.

ii) Moral rights : The rights based on the moral principles of the society are called the moral rights. These rights do not have any legal protection. Customs, traditions and usages are regarded as the basic source of these rights. Ex : respecting the elders, nourishing the children, taking care of the parents during their old age, etc.

iii) Legal rights : Legal rights are recognised by the state and protected by the law. They are applicable to all sections of society without any discrimination on the basis of caste, religion, race etc Legal rights are classified under three subcategories, namely
A) Civil rights,
B) Political rights and
C) Economic rights.

Section – C (15 × 2 = 30)

Note :

• Answer any fifteen of the following questions in not exceeding 5 lines each.
• Each question carries 2 marks.

Question 18.
Name any four topics covered under the scope of political science.
Answer:
The scope of Political Science comprises the following points.

1. Study of man in relation to the society and state.
2. Study of the state.
3. Study of the government.
4. Study of Associations and Institutions.

Question 19.
Name the four other elements of the state ?
Answer:
State prossesses four other elements.
They are

1. International Recognition
2. Permanence
3. General obedience and
4. Popular will

Question 20.
Mention any two essential elements of nationality.
Answer:
Nationality is derived from the Latin word “Natio”. Which means birth. It is a spiritual sentiment or feeling or oneness. This emotional feeling of oneness or unity is caused due to factors like common race, common language, common religion, common territory, common history and culture, common political aspirations etc. Nationality is not politically organised. There can be no nation without nationality.

Question 21.
Define the terms “JUS and JUNGERE”
Answer:
Law has its roots in the Latin words “JUS & JUNGERE” which means bond or tie. The literal meaning of law denotes that it is a bond or systematic code of conduct which regulates the external behaviour of man by the sovereign political authority.

Question 22.
What do you know about national liberty ?
Answer:
National liberty implies the Freedom and Independence of the state. It also denotes the sovereignty of the state. Every state enjoys this liberty and remains free from the political domination of other states. Ex: The Indian masses under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi waged a non-violent struggle to secure National Freedom from the British Rule.

Question 23.
What are the objectives of human rights ?
Answer:
The objectives of human rights are :

1. Provision of independence to the people against discrimination.
2. Freedom from poverty.
3. Freedom from speech and expression
4. Freedom from injustice.
5. Freedom of against exploitation.

Question 24.
What are the views of advocates of free market machanism ?
Answer:
Advocates of free markets admitted that individuals should be allowed to have complete economic freedoms like freedom of property, contracts in economic matters. They professed free competition between various factors of production in the economy.

Question 25.
Explain the significance of citizenship.
Answer:
Citizenship remains significant when the fundamental rights are guaranteed in the constitution are available to all the citizens. Citizenship ensures the citizens many political rights. Citizens could exercise their vote in elections to the various representative bodies.

Question 26.
What is meant by Initiative ?
Answer:
Initiative is a request made by the people to the legislature in framing a law on certain national problem or policy as such. After making the law, the same shall be presented for referendum. In this aspect, people in a specified number present a petition in written form to the legislature proposing a legislation. It is also of two kinds.
They are

1. Formulative initiative
2. Non-formulative initiative.

Question 27.
What is the social dimension of secularism.
Answer:
Secularism stands for eschewing or ignoring superstitions in social life. It never allows individuals to think and act in terms of one’s caste, colour, creed etc. It desires individuals to abstain untouchability, bonded labour and other evil practices in their day to day activities while dealing with their neighbours. It advises them to treat others on equal and respectable manner.

Question 28.
Classify the constitutions
Answer:

1. Written constitution
2. Unwritten constitution
3. Rigid constitution
4. Flexible constitution

Question 29.
Written constitution ?
Answer:
A written constitution is formulated and adopted by a constituent assembly or a convention. It comprises several principles and rules of the government in a written form or document.
Ex : Indian constitution.

Question 30.
Classification of governments.
Answer:
Governments are classified into two basing on the elements of tradition and modernity.

1. Traditional governments : A) Monarches B) Aristocracy C) Democracy
2. Modern governments : A) Unitary B) Federal C) Parliamentary D) Presidential

Question 31.
Mention any four features of unitary government.
Answer:

1. Single and supreme central government
2. Flexible constitution
3. Single citizenship
4. Single Legislature

Question 32.
In what way is political science considered as a study of the government.
Answer:
Study of the government : Government is an important essential element of modern State. It is an instrument which fulfills aims and goals of the state. There can be no state with out a government. Government formulates, expresses and implements the will of the state. Government consists of three organs namely Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. Legislature makes the laws, Executive implements the laws and Judiciary interpretes the laws. Political Science studies the meaning, forms, structure, nature and functions of the government. It also discusses the relationship among the various organs of the government. Hence, Political Science is treated as a science of government.

Question 33.
How many organs of government are there ? Explain their functions briefly.
Answer:
Government is the third essential element of the state. It is an instrument which fulfills aims and goals of the state. Government consists of three organs viz.,

1. Legislature : Law making organ. Ex : Parliament.
2. Executive : Law implementing organ. Ex : Council of Ministers.
3. Judiciary : Justice administering organ. Ex : Supreme court and High courts.

Question 34.
Classify the law.
Answer:
Law is classified into the following types.

1. National law
2. International law
3. Constitutional Law
4. Ordinary law
5. Public law
6. Private law
7. Administrative law
8. General law
9. Statutory law and
10. Common law.

Question 35.
Mention the sources of Justice.
Answer:
Earnest Barker gives four sources of justice.
They are mentioned as below

1. Nature
2. Ethics
3. Religion
4. Economic elements.

Question 36.
Types of democracy.
Answer:
Democracy is Mainly classified into two types, Namely

1. Direct or pure democracy
2. Indirect or Representative Democracy

Question 37.
Administrative functions of judiciary.
Answer:
Administrative functions : The supreme court and high courts are entrusted with some administrative functions. They make suggestions to the executive head in appointing the judges of the courts. The higher courts supervise the functioning of the lower courts.